Water and sanitation

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Fig 1 shows the design of septic tank – cross section. Picture: SUPPLIED

Ever since evolution of humans about seven million years ago, they searched for water sources and established their homesteads.

The homo sapiens or earlier humans quickly spread to other parts of the world as they have adapted to weather patterns.

Fresh water quality and quantity are inextricably linked to maintaining hygiene and sanitation.

We all have ideas that water is essential to sustain life and livelihood.

All living organisms have to rely or depend on water for sustenance. Humans can stay without for a few days but not survive after four days.

Our body requires water for its metabolism process.

On average every person on Earth requires about two or more litres of clean drinking water each day which amounts to more than 12 million m3/day for the world’s population.

While there is evidence of a vast amount of water for human needs but its uneven distribution is a concern.

On average the world’s water; 97 per cent is in oceans or lakes, while remaining 2.53 per cent is in the form of snow and ice.

The common sources of water are by rainfall which saturates the ground water, however, in some countries there is no rainfall or drought conditions persist. Then there are other means to derive drinking water for humans.

Apart from artesian well or dug well, there are wide catchment areas such as rainforest or reserve areas to harness rain water from lakes, rivers or canals which is directed to a dam or reservoir for treatment.

The municipal water from a catchment is treated by use of chemicals to kill pathogens

. The common chemical is chlorine, used widely to kill bacteria, apart from others used to control dental decay and control acidity of water (Davis & Basset, 1977).

The World Health Organization (WHO) has a guideline which is followed by most countries in the world (WHO 1993d). However, each country may develop its own based on risks, benefits approach.

Early civilisation

With the steady growth of science and technology in the 18th century in Europe which led to the industrial revolution had brought a mass of people from the rural areas to major cities.

The industrial revolution had to depend on water for industrial processes such as generation of hydroelectric and thermoelectric power.

Water also acts as a coolant for nuclear and coal/ oil power stations. Importantly water is so useful in maintaining hygiene and sanitation.

It was due to lack of sanitary conditions and lack of sanitary management of physical environment with the steady increase in many water borne and vector borne diseases that had caused many deaths.

There were no public health and town planning laws. Lack of treated water has had many ramifications such as in spread of germs such as bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms.

Most of these are transmitted through contaminated water by vectors or drinking contaminated water.

The most common water borne diseases are by bacterial, viruses, protozoa and helminths. Examples of each one of these are Salmonella E. Coli, followed by Adenovirus, Rotavirus and protozoa diseases such as Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia intestinalis and helminths disease as Dracunulus medinesis (Annalee Yassi et al. 2001).

In some instances, a person drinks untreated water or eats stale food the chance of illness will be higher.

On the other hand, schistosomiasis, a tropical disease enters the human body through skin and causes infections to target organs.

While flowing body of water may partially clean water itself, can dilute, oxidize, and remove pathogens as long as its capacity is not exceeded.

Importance of sanitation

It is due to the episodes of epidemics in Europe which led to deaths of many people especially communicable diseases such as cholera, typhoid, chicken pox and plaque (black death). The etymologies of diseases were not known.

The British Colony made very periphery laws in every country it has colonized.

Fiji has the Public Health Act Cap 111 of 1935 and many other Subsidiary Regulations.

However, over the passage of time, there are many other laws that have been added or consolidated for better enforcement and include Occupation Health and Safety, National Building Code and iTaukei (Provincial Laws).

As per the Public Health Laws, Fiji is divided in areas such as Urban Councils, Rural Sanitary Districts and registered Fijian Villages.

While it is the duty of the Central Board of Health to look after sanitation and other areas outside the boundary, there are minimum standards for use of toilets in areas such as in rural areas, pit latrines may be accepted.

It has many disadvantages due to smell, breeding grounds of mosquitoes and flies, in addition to water pollution.

In areas where there is piped supply of water seal latrines will be acceptable.

Whereas, septic tank is allowed in both rural or in urban built up areas, it will work efficiently if water is connected via pipes by reticulation.

Another model which is commonly used in water logged areas is compost toilet.

In this model the solid is deposited in a bin and liquid channeled to a soakage pit.

When the bin is full the waste is mixed with dry soil and it will help as a soil conditioner.

There are many types of these with slight deviations which are used in resorts to avoid pollution of beaches. In early 1970s the WHO was supporting with free distribution of plastic bowls after floods and hurricanes.

Moreover, over the years, the Ministry of Health of Health has been selling plastic bowls with support from a local company.

Many communities were assisted by MOH in construction of water seal latrines by supplying mould to cast structure.

Treatment of waste water

It is the duty of the Sanitary Inspectors of Local Authorities (Urban/Rural) to visit from time to cause inspections of all premises and see the condition of conveniences at all places.

In small sized plots reticulated sewerage is the minimum standard required to dispose night soil or human waste, a bigger sized plot or unsewer areas require septic tanks.

It will receive all types of waste water such as human waste, as well as from kitchen, bathroom and other utilities. The bacteria both (aerobic and anaerobic) in the septic tank with enzymes help in decomposing all domestic wastes. The floating particles are known as scum while the solids settle at the bottom as sludge (Fig 1).

The effluent will gradually flow away provided the level of sludge is lessor than outlet pipe.

The undecomposed waste or sludge will cause the septic tank to block and cause leachates to infiltrate to outside environment even from the lids.

This is one of the signs that the owner has to take action to clean the septic tank or bail it out.

Because of the use of many types of detergents and grease or soaps, the useful bacteria gets killed or destroyed.

The septic tank has two compartments see the picture (Figure 1), the inlet pipe which comes from a house has many types of fixtures and fittings such as toilets, bathrooms, laundry, hand basins and waste water is channeled to the septic tank.

In the first chamber (retention chamber) is where the waste water is stored and is decomposed, gradually it enters the second compartment.

In this chamber the anaerobic bacteria reduce or decomposes the waste to form sludge as well as scum.

If the level of sludge increases, then the septic will get full easily. It requires attention by the owner to clean it up. Many times, the waste from septic infiltrates or makes its way to nearby creeks and rivers which cause water pollution.

This will cause lot of problems to water quality such as depletion of oxygen and clogging flowing water by eutrophication which will allow aquatic plants to grow copiously.

It reduces the population of the fresh water creatures including fish to die and allow other species to breed which prefer less oxygen (Miller 1994).

The flow of water in the river or creek will be reduced and will result in decreased depth of the river.

The risk of severe flooding will be high. There will be a change in the ecosystem.

Since most villages and settlements are located near the sea side, rivers or even low lying areas, the waste (leachates) from the latrines including septic also affect the bio-chemistry of water quality affects the ecosystem. On the other hand, flooding in most low lying areas have been causing lot of public health issues and among them has been infectious diseases and pollution problems.

The Ministry of Health had identified 74 positive cases of Leptospirosis and deaths after recent flooding (The Statesman, May 4th, 2002).

On the other hand, many people have been using drums as structure to be septic tank, it does not last long and has been the cause of many water borne diseases after heavy flooding which include typhoid.

While sewerage system has many advantages as the wastes including industrial waste is treated at the treatment plant.

In Fiji there are many such plants at districts and towns. It is a biological process to treat waste water by means of treatment plant in sewage reticulated areas.

The cost of such an operation is very high because of the use of electricity, skilled workers, mechanical parts and periodic maintenances.

The other problem is that since industrial waste is also discharged, the risks of acidic conditions in waste water is usually high (BODBio- Chemical Oxygen Demand) which has a lot of impact on receiving water.

Care and maintenance

Every owner of the premises or management of a company must ensure the toilets or conveniences are cleaned regularly and maintained in a hygienic condition.

The use of antiseptic or chlorine compound must be used with caution.

However, in the case of pit latrines antiseptic may affect the anaerobic bacteria which are useful in decomposing waste.

In the case of water closet connected to a septic tank, check for any foul smell or any leakage from the lids and also from inlet/outlet chambers. In some cases the overgrowth of grass or plants may be the indicator of possible pollution.

Also observe the sides for any leachates in filtering the water ways.

Coloured dye may be used to flush the water and septic tank could be tested for leakages. The colour of dye is a good indicator to verify it. Seek assistance of a plumber or health official to give further advice.

Remember it is an offence to pollute the environment.

The same will include solid waste disposal into any waterways.

Your local authority will prosecute any person under Public Health laws. Looking after your toilet is a private issue but the pollution from the outlet will affect water quality, fishery and recreation of public areas.

• KESHWA KRISHNA is a retired lecturer from FNU, School of Public Health and Primary Care, Tamavua, Suva. The views expressed are his and not of this newspaper.

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